Professional market research plan for Bounce Fitness Essay

Research on competition †¢Comparing consumer attitudes to an organisation †¢Services and those of competitors †¢Identifying frequency of use of competitors products and services †¢Identifying key competitors and their strengths †¢Measuring awareness Research on consumers †¢Developing detailed consumer profiles †¢Identifying changes in attitudes and behaviour patterns †¢Identifying existing , potential or lapsed consumers Research on place †¢Identifying attitudes towards location †¢Identifying cooperative opportunities for distribution of information or services †¢Identifying demand for products or services at other locations Research on pricing †¢Identifying attitude towards pricing †¢Identifying cost †¢Testing alternative pricing strategies †¢Research on products and services †¢Evaluating competitors products †¢Evaluating consumer attitudes towards presentation and packaging †¢Identifying potential new products or services or ones which may be at the end of their life cycle †¢Measuring attitudes towards existing products or services Research on promotion †¢Measuring advertising and promotion effectiveness †¢Testing alternative massages †¢Testing and comparing different media options Project 2 Implement, monitor and evaluate the market research plan for Bounce Fitness. A.Develop a detailed ,realistic implementation program †¢Includes an implementation strategy for the identification , selection , contracting and monitoring of all external consultants †¢Defines and communicates clearly all priorities, responsibilities, timelines and budgets, along with all personnel involved †¢Outlines all resources required, where and how they would be obtained, along with associated costs and conditions. †¢Incorporate contingencies for at risk areas †¢Includes a monitoring process to ensure the project sticks to budget and stays on course †¢Determines how you will measure your stakeholder satisfaction at the end of the project †¢Includes an evaluation process for final review of your project. Part B Conduct an information session for contractors †¢Instruction to your researchers in regards to their role and your expectations †¢Documentation and submission procedures †¢Communication strategies Part C Evaluate the research process and findings †¢Evaluate the usefulness of the findings in terms of relevance to initial objectives †¢Evaluate the marketing research methods used †¢Suggest any adjustment required as a result of the evaluations †¢Provide a modified research and implementation plan that reflects the adjustments you would make B 1.Statement of market research needs 2.Include research objectives 3.Include project scope 4.Identify the specific data required, including how it will be gathered , quantified and processed 5.Include estimates of time lines and castings 6.Include all required forms and recording instruments for each research method chosen

Job Satisfaction and Employees Performance

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1. 0 Background of the study of Job Satisfaction and Employee Performance in Total Nigeria Plc. The Total Nigeria PLC is a privately held, owned and managed industrial lubrication, oil and gas manufacturing company spread across the geographical regions and districts in Nigeria. The company has been a part of the Nigeria manufacturing landscape since 1962 and has earned the reputation as one of the key suppliers for lubrication equipment, oil and gas products in the industry.It manufactures petrol, kerosene, diesel, cooking gas, car care products, insecticides and lubricants such as oilers spray systems, applicators and condition monitoring equipment. Total Nigeria Plc. is dedicated to selling its products through distribution. TOTAL is the world’s fourth-largest publicly-traded integrated oil and gas company, with operations in more than 130 countries spanning all aspects of the petroleum industry, including Upstream operations (oil and gas exploratio n, development and production, LNG) and Downstream operations (refining, marketing and the trading and shipping of crude oil and petroleum products ).TOTAL employees more than 95,000 employees worldwide, TOTAL reported sales of â‚ ¬153. 8 billion in 2006. TOTAL Upstream activities are carried out by three subsidiary companies in Nigeria. They are: 1. Total Export and Production Nigeria Limited (TEPNG) 2. Total Upstream Nigeria Limited (TUPNL) for oil/gas 3. Total Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Limited for gas. They are committed partners in Nigeria's growth and improvement: what they take out of the ground, they put into the economy.Their long term vision is to remain Nigeria's preferred operator, promoting the nation's economy through their various activities, and all the while contributing positively to the sustainable development of its communities. Samuel Emeka Mbah (Unilag Research Paper): There is a general consensus that there exists a managerial problem of finding successful mechanism of retaining employees especially in a job environment that is characterized by constant yearnings for pay rise.Employee job satisfaction has influence on employee turnover in organisations. The implication of this is that the extent to which an organisation is able to retain its employees’ depend on the level of job satisfaction that are made available to these workers. Job satisfaction is known to have positive impact on employee turnover intentions. It means that dissatisfaction on the job increases or will increase the rate of employee turnover intention in organisation. Job satisfaction is how content an individual is with his or her job.Dessler (1978:37) refers to job satisfaction, ‘as the degree of needs satisfaction that is derived from and or experienced on the job’. He affirms to the ability of employees in an organisation aspirations, feeling happy doing their job with the hope that their needs will be achieved. A job is a group of positions , which involves essentially the same duties, responsibility, skill and knowledge†. Scholars and human resource professionals generally make a distinction between affective job satisfaction and cognitive job satisfaction.Affective job satisfaction is the extent of pleasurable emotional feelings individuals have about their jobs overall, and is different to cognitive job satisfaction which is the extent of individuals’ satisfaction with particular facets of their jobs, such as pay, pension arrangements, working hours, and numerous other aspects of their jobs. Consequently, the inability of employees to achieve their needs will amount to dissatisfaction because job satisfaction is a general attitude towards an individual’s job, and the difference between the amount of reward workers receive and the amount they believe they should receive.It has been observed that a person with a high level of job satisfaction holds positive attitude towards the job while the person who is dissatisfied with the job holds negative attitude about the job. Also satisfied employees are known to show higher level work performance in organisations. By analysing job satisfaction an organisation can possibly increase positive outcomes such as employee satisfaction and performance, and may decrease absenteeism and turnover. 1. 1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Employees in Total Nigeria Plc. lay important roles, so employee’s satisfaction is a very essential one; hence there arises a need to study the job satisfaction of oil, gas and lubrication employees. The Total Nigeria Plc. has been a part of the Nigerian industrial setting for over 40years. Investigating the employee’s value-perception can aid in managers building and creating work environments that help them to achieve high levels of employee satisfaction. The intention of investigating employee job satisfaction is therefore a step toward creating a healthy psychological contract for people at work (Palme r, 1999, Pg. ). This research therefore, seeks to evaluate the antecedents of employee turnover in the Total Nigeria PLC with a view to understanding its retention strategy. It would also evaluate the level of employee job satisfaction in relation to pay, nature of work and supervision as well as recommend ways of sustaining or improving on the company’s retention strategy. This research study would help in mapping out strategies and methods that would foster objective conclusions. 1. 2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDYJob satisfaction can be used as a powerful tool to achieve goal congruency and enhance employee motivation. It has been observed and noted that employees who find self-identity within the organisational context are motivated even in the face of adversity and channel their efforts towards the achievement of organisational goals. The absence of employee motivation may have significant negative implications to the company achieving its strategy. The objectives of this resea rch are: 1. To access the general level of job satisfaction in Total Nigeria Plc. . To determine the nature of the relationship between employees’ job satisfaction level and their performance. 3. To determine the major sources of dissatisfaction in Total Nigeria Plc. 4. To recommend some measures for improving the satisfaction level of the employees. This research will reinforce the knowledge on the holistic approach to job satisfaction from corporate strategy to individual level. It would also help in the academic understanding and development in the field of change management with specific reference to job satisfaction.It will be useful to Total Nigeria Plc. , other state owned enterprises, governmental and private sector organisations in Nigeria in the implementation of job satisfaction. It will give an overview of management and employees’ understanding of the whole concept of job satisfaction, their level of participation in its implementation, from strategy devel opment, goal setting to performance reviews, and their perception regarding its impact on the achievement of corporate objectives. 1. 3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1. How can the general level of job satisfaction in Total Nigeria Plc. e accessed? 2. How can the nature of the relationship between employees’ job satisfaction level and their performance be determined? 3. How can the major sources of dissatisfaction in Total Nigeria Plc. Be determined? 4. Recommend some measures for improving the satisfaction level of employees? 1. 4 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS 1. There is no association between working conditions and job satisfaction. 2. There is no association between rewards provided and job satisfaction. 3. There is no association between welfare measures and job satisfaction. . There is no association between job security and job satisfaction. 1. 5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY 1. Job satisfaction should be the major determinants of an employee organizational behaviour. 2. A satisfied employee will be having positive attitude towards his or her job and would go beyond the normal expectation in his or her job. 3. A person who places high importance on imagination, independence and freedom is likely to be poorly matched with an organization that seeks conformity from its employees. 1. 6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDYThe study included all employees of the organisation, with the exception of the researcher and the CEO and regional managers. All the findings and observations made in the study are purely based on the respondents’ answers which may be biased. Time and cost is also another constraint. 1. 6 DEFINITION OF TERMS PLC – Public Liability Company LNG – Liquefied Natural Gas TEPNG – Total Export and Production Nigeria Limited Unilag – University of Nigeria, Lagos State CEO – Chief Executive Officer TUPNL – Total Upstream Nigeria Limited

Juvenile Justice Authority in Maine Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Juvenile Justice Authority in Maine - Term Paper Example Journals, books, and credible Government and educational websites have been used as references. The Juvenile Justice System In order to explore the juvenile justice authority activities in Maine, we must first understand the juvenile justice system of the state. The juvenile justice system in Maine is functional inside the greater juvenile justice framework of the United States. The theory behind this framework is based on extensive research, experience, and sociological introspection. Critical theorists and sociologists hold juvenile delinquency and juvenile justice in the terms of a class structured capitalist society. â€Å"They point to economic and social inequalities that increase the probability of lower-class youth turning to crime because so few opportunities are open to them. Critical criminologists contend that the origin of the concept of delinquency and juvenile justice in America is based on economic and class differences.† (Hesse and Lawrence, 2010, p. 59) The j uvenile justice authority in Maine practically implements the conceptual framework based on this theoretical perspective. Under the auspices of Maine Department of Corrections (MDOC), the juvenile services of the state seek to establish a society oriented approach that will give rise to a collaborative and supportive social system including the individuals along with their communities and families. Thus, the factors that put children at risk can be addressed and necessary action can be taken in proper time. Technically, the resultant functionary is both proactive and amply oriented to the social needs. Juvenile Justice in Maine: An Overview The Maine Department of Corrections (MDOC) regulates juvenile justice in the state through its Division of Juvenile Services, which is the main juvenile justice authority in the region. In their publication Taking Measure, the authorities have explicitly explained their mission in the following words: â€Å"To promote public safety by ensuring t hat juvenile offenders are provided with education, treatment and other services that teach skills and competencies; strengthen prosocial behaviors and require accountability to victims and communities.† (MDOC, Division of Juvenile Services, 2007, p. 3) The structure of the service framework is primarily based on the youth development centers. The two most prominent centers are: 1. The Long Creek Youth Development Center (LCYDC) 2. The Mountain View Youth Development Center (MVYDC) LCYDC: The center was originally named the Boys Training Center established in 1853. After several remodeling and adaptation drives, â€Å"it continues to redefine many of its program functions to enable a total multi-disciplined team approach in working with those committed and held within the facility.† (MDOC, 2011a) MVYDC: This facility started operation in 1998. â€Å"This secure facility replaced the use of county jails within the ten counties as the primary detention location for juven iles pending court action prior to sentencing† (MDOC, 2001b) It also serves the purpose of brief confinements. Moreover, the juvenile services have collaborated with the University of Southern Maine in order to embark on different social-scientific projects. These projects address the evolving needs of the juvenile justice framework. Many of the projects are designed to collected and exploit statistical data regarding juvenile delinquency and its effects in the

Possible Selves Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Possible Selves - Assignment Example Kail and Cavanaugh (2013) elaborate that possible selves constitute powerful motivator for people to struggle towards achieving their dreams and live satisfying life. Reflective judgment theory explores and details ways in which people base their reasoning through real life dilemmas that concern and revolve around religion, personal relationships and science among others (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2013). According to reflective judgment theory, there are seven stages of judgment. The seven stages are in three groups, namely prereflective thought that covers stages 1 to 3, quasi-reflective reasoning that covers stages 4-5 and reflective reasoning that covers stages 6 and 7. According to Kail and Cavanaugh (2013), prereflective thought of the reflective judgment theory that covers stages 1 to 3 makes people regard knowledge as something gained through the word(s) of a higher authority or firsthand observation rather than through evaluative and analytical reasoning of evidences. People exhibiting this element believe that their knowledge about life issues is absolutely correct and certain. Students in high school or colleges tend to apply prereflective thought in the process of learning. Since they do not want to challenge the knowledge of perceived intelligent and correct lecturers and teachers, they simply believe and trust instructions and lectures with little intent to seek further evidence. Teacher or lecturer is usually a person of higher authority and knowledge and cannot give false instructions or concepts to the students (Zytowski & D’Achiardi-Ressler, 2011). Believing instructions as given is usually a show of obedience, respect and disc ipline, which constitute elements of the so-called â€Å"good students†. In addition, prereflective thought of reflective judgment enable students to read, believe and grasp research findings documented in books

Employee Turnover Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Employee Turnover - Essay Example Galvin (2004) asserts that turnover is "a modern business dilemma that is costing companies billions of dollars annually, yet surprisingly little is done about it." For businesses seeking to optimize their bottom line, particularly in the retail industry, getting this problem under control can translate into dramatic improvement in profitability and competitiveness. Understanding the particular costs of turnover to each business is an essential first step in determining the extent to which it is even a problem that needs to be addressed, and if so what is the appropriate approach to addressing the problem. This paper examines the reasons for higher rates of turnover in retail generally as compared to many other industries. It goes on to propose solutions and strategies retailers can adopt to decrease employee turnover and improve their bottom line. The direct costs of turnover are easy to quantify, according to Galvin. These are recruitment expenses such as classified ads and headhunter fees, training expenses, "travel or relocation expenses, interviewing, overtime for employees who take on departing employees' tasks, and all the related administrative functions that go into the grand exit and entrance." These costs are merely the "tip of the iceberg," however, as there are numerous indirect costs that are often not even considered. These include lost business from unhappy customers who are driven away by compromised service quantity and quality, resulting in lost business. Also, there is usually some lost productivity resulting from the need for other employees to pick up the slack in addition to their own jobs. Finally, the diversion of management attention from strategic planning to devising ways to make up the shortfall left by departing workers yields an opportunity cost for the business (Galvin, 2004). What strategic and competitive strides could have been made had management not been preoccupied with filling gaps from employee turnover An additional indirect cost of turnover in a retail environment is missed sales due to inexperience of new staff or due to the lack of adequate available staff to take care of all customers efficiently. Kal Lifson (1996) asserts that an "inexperienced sales associate loses 10% of the sales dollars that a veteran associate would have made." That is an enormous impact that is often not even accounted for by companies concerned with the financial impact of turnover. "Turnover takes a huge bite from the bottom line. Large merchants spend an average of $77 million a year in severance and other departure related costs, and lose another $161 million in potential revenue due to such factors as new employee mistakes," maintains Leigh Dyer (2002). The story on turnover is not all bad. Businesses arguably need some fresh blood in order to remain dynamic. New people bring fresh ideas and approaches to the business. Companies with zero turnover risk being stagnant and stodgy in a very competitive industry that is largely based on a clientele attracted to the young, the hip and the trendy. "New employees do bring in new ideas and keep the organization fresh and current" (Zografos, 2006). In addition, some level of turnover helps businesses to understand the driving factors behind employee retention, enabling them to respond more effectively when the inevitable departure does take place. Low-turnover businesses can "focus on why employees

Business and managerial economics Math Problem Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Business and managerial economics - Math Problem Example It should be noted that this does not denote unemployment but will only shift occupations. g) Higher unemployment benefits discourage school-leavers from working. As some resources become unemployed, this will cause a decline in production represented by a movement to a point within the frontier. Suppose a news article reports, 'Poor wine grape harvests in France have brought financial gain to Australian winemakers. Sales of Australian wines are booming and wine prices are the best ever.' Analyse the economics of the events reported by answering the following questions: a. How has the market for French wines been affected by poor wine grape harvests Explain with the aid of a diagram. In your diagram, indicate what is happening to the equilibrium price of French wines and the equilibrium quantity trade in this market. The poor wine grape harvest move the supply curve to the left. With the new supply schedule, the equilibrium price is higher. This is represented from the change in equilibrium point from 1 to 2 with prices rising from P to B. The presence of Australian imports in the market of French wine depresses sales of French wine. In the figure above, the intersection of supply and demand in France is denoted by point 1 at price P. However, Australian wine is charged at price A which is lower. Thus, consumers turn to the cheaper products Section 3 9 Multiple choice questions 2 marks each (20 marks) 1. The problem of scarcity: a. Exists only in times of economic depression for rich countries b. Is identical to poverty c. Exists in all economies d. Can be eliminated by allocating available resources to the poorer sections of a society. 2. Because productive resources are scarce, we must give up some of one good in order to acquire more of another. This is the essence of the concept of: a. Specialisation b. Monetary exchange c. Comparative advantage d. Opportunity cost 3. Which of the following does not change supply a. A change in price of the good in question b. A change in the state of technology c. A change in producer expectations d. A change in the number of producers 4. Price and quantity supplied are usually directly related because a. Higher prices mean that producers are rewarded more for production b. The law of increasing opportunity cost applies c. There is more prestige associated with producing a high-priced good d. a and b 5. Demand reflects the quantity that consumers

Argument Synthesis agiainst Minimum Wage Research Paper

Argument Synthesis agiainst Minimum Wage - Research Paper Example The needs and wants of the people are critical to account for, with the state and federal governments playing a fundamental role in relation to this pursuit. Specifically, the quality and standard of life of the people is targeted, with the income earned by the employed population being the target variable. Minimum wage is an extensive, diverse and dynamic concept in employment and remuneration arena. Many states and the federal government at large observes set minimum wage rates, which are revised from time to time as deemed necessary (Block, et al. 49). The aim of setting minimum wage rates is to protect workers are prone to exploitation by employees for one reason or another. Workers are primarily exploited due to lack of adequate skills and knowledge, while they still persistently seek employment opportunities. For this reason, governments in collaboration with labor unions engage in the minimum wage setting to protect prone workers. A minimum wage rate outlines the least remuner ation that an employee can receive from potential employers. Payment of wages below the set rate constitutes a criminal act and violation of labor rights. Therefore, employers are expected to comply with minimum wage requirements. On the other hand, minimum wage requirements are set to benefit workers in the economy. ... minimum wage decisions made within an economy are bound to affect that economy positively or negatively, constituting benefits or hardships for the economy. In this regard, minimum wage can be argued for and against, with the factor outperforming the other resting on the economic variables evaluated. Arguments in favor of minimum wage are based on the direct benefits reaped by individual employees and the economy at large. I. Raising the minimum wage hurts low income workers As earlier mentioned, minimum wage can be revised every time it is deemed necessary. This means that the wage can be reduced or increased. The primary reason that leads to the setting of minimum wage is to raise the earning capacity of unskilled or semiskilled workers. This is further linked to improved and better quality of life and subsequent standards of livelihood. Minimum wage pursuits are not only pursued by the government, but also by labor unions within the economy. All the parties involved can push for r eduction or increment of minimum wage, with too low wage jeopardizing the workers’ economic welfare (Weinberger 1). Raising minimum wage is not a strictly positive-oriented activity. Low income workers are more vulnerable to the hurting effect of increased minimum wage. To start with, an increase in the minimum wage means that the demand and supply of labor must be altered. When labor becomes more expensive than it was previously the case, then employers reduce their employment opportunities. This implies that the low income group finds itself in low employment opportunities within the labor market. Economics dictate that changes in prices alter both demand and supply aspects in the economy. In the minimum wage context, an increase in the minimum wage makes low income workers worse off

Protein Diet in Athletes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Protein Diet in Athletes - Essay Example The muscle growth depends on the balance between protein synthesis (anabolism) and protein breakdown (catabolism). Exercise affects this balance and for activities that cause muscle hypertrophy, the anabolic process must exceed the catabolic process. In highly physically active individuals, proteins enhance nitrogen retention and prevent protein catabolism during prolonged exercise. Besides, they prevent sports anemia and resynthesize muscle glycogen after exercise. The balance between anabolic and catabolic processes in the body can be determined by the essential amino acid, leucine. A positive leucine balance indicates the presence of the acid in the cells that favor protein anabolism. Decrease in amino acid availability due to low protein intake increases muscle protein catabolism while increased amino acid availability stimulates muscle protein synthesis and greater muscle anabolism. Hormones such as insulin and testosterone also play a role in muscle protein synthesis and hypert rophy. After exercise, insulin inhibits further muscle protein breakdown, and when small amounts of amino acids are ingested with carbohydrates, transient muscle protein anabolism occurs since carbohydrates restore supply. Amino acid supplementation and impact the athlete’s performance No consensus has been reached on the role of amino acid supplementation on athlete’s performance. Williams (2005) noted that when branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) supplementation is used before and after exercise.

Jade figure of a hound Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Jade figure of a hound - Research Proposal Example The artwork is in three dimensional, and it is in the form of a small sculpture. For instance, the artwork is symbolic of the importance given to domestic animals in Ancient China. Michael Sullivan opined that, â€Å"To many people â€Å"Ming† means not painting-for only recently has Ming painting come to be appreciated outside China- but the decorative arts.† Besides, one cannot identify any sort of sharp edges on the artwork because the edges are round in shape. The artwork can be divided as: dog’s head, body, and legs. To be specific, the head is pointed backwards and this fills the viewer’s mind with enthusiasm. To be specific, the dog’s head (especially the eyes) is the focal point of the artwork because the dog is expecting something and looking backwards. The next element in the artwork is the dog’s body, and the same is symbolic of the importance of proportion in art. The next element is the legs, symbolic of warmth and peacefulness. In short, the proportionate alignment of artistic elements proves that the artwork was produced by an artist who is interested in observing animals, especially their shape and size. The artwork consists of curves, symbolic of the athletic shape of animals, especially among dogs and other domesticated animals. The overall size of the artwork is related to the normal size of a dog. One can see that the artist did not try to alter the natural colour of jade and the lines and curves on the artwork prove the same. To be specific, the artist made use of jade as a medium to produce his artwork.

Causes and Spread of Infection Essay Example for Free

Causes and Spread of Infection Essay 1.1Identify the differences between bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites Bacteria are a single celled organism that multiplies by themselves. The majority of bacteria’s are harmless and beneficial to the human body but some can cause infectious diseases. A bacterium usually affects one part of the body and doesn’t spread across or through the body. Bacterial infections are normally treated with a cause of antibiotics Viruses are made up of genes and proteins that spread throughout the body by invading the body’s own cells so they can reproduce and multiply in the body. They use the body’s cells as a host because they are unable to multiply on their own. They are normally spread directly from human to human. Fungi like to grow in warm, moist places. Some fungi can be beneficial to us such as penicillin, but certain types of fungi can be harmful to our health. Symptoms for fungal diseases can be as common as itching, coughing, fever, wheezing, but they can also be as serious as meningitis or even death. Parasites are organisms that use other organism for its survival. They draw nourishment and other needs from its host organism. Parasites that cause infection and disease are known as Pathogenic parasites. 1.2. Identify common illnesses and infections caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites Bacteria: Ecoli/food poisoning, MRSA, CDIF, Sickness and diarrhea Viruses: Common cold, Influenza, Chicken pox, Cold sores, HIV Fungi: Athletes foot, Thrush, yeast infections, Ring Worm Parasites: Tape worms, Scabies, Malaria 1.3 Describe what is meant by infection and colonisation Infection – is an invasion of a host organisms and bodily tissues by a disease causing organism. Colonisation – occurs when any one or more species populate a specific area. 1.4 Explain what is meant by systemic infection and localized infection Systemic infection – affects a number of organs or tissues or affects the whole body e.g. type 2 diabetes, aids and hyper tension. Localized infection – confined to one organ system or area in the body e.g. abscess, boil, sprain. 1.5 Identify poor practices that may lead to the spread of infection Not wearing personal protective equipment such as disposable gloves, disposable aprons, washing hands and disposing of clinical waste in the correct way.

Olympic and paralympic games in london

Olympic and paralympic games in london 1. Introduction On 6th July in Year 2005, London has been selected as the host cit of 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games . The Olympic Games will be held on 27 July 2012, with the Paralympics following from 29 August 2012, (, House of Commons Public Accounts Thirty-Ninth Report) therefore, the organizations which have the provision of a fixed duration of the Olympic Games related. Progress has been made in a number of areas London was chosen to host the Games, in the key projects, re-routing underground Olympic Park, including the power line. (The Report of 2012 London Olympics, 2009) Olympic Delivery Authority has also begun the procurement activities, including the appointment of Delivery Partners, to support the management of Olympic Delivery in venues and infrastructure. (Annual Report and Accounts 2006-2007, Olympic Delivery Authority) 1.1Experiences of Olympic regeneration l The failure of Helliniko Olympic Complex after 2004 There were 22 permanent new venues built for the 2004 game. The rest of the competition venues have been renovated to cater for larger audiences. Only one out of the 33 competing venues was temporary and intended for removal afterward. Helliniko Olympic complex (one of the two Olympic complexes): Six Sporting venues: Kayak, Hockey, Baseball, Softball and two indoor arenas. The complex has been left derelict since 2004. l Successes in Atlanta Before the Olympic, the Centennial Olympic Parks neighbourhood was a run-down as is East London. After the Olympics, the 21-acre park performs a dual mission as: Georgias lasting legacy of the Centennial Olympic Game be located in Stratford, East London, Lower Lea Valley, and houses the main venue of the following: The Olympic Stadium The Aquatics Centre The Hockey Centre The Velopark (Containing Velodrome and BMX Circuit) Four Multi-Sports Areas (in one building) (Construction Projects of the 2012 London Olympics, 2006) (London 2012 Constructing the Olympic reality, Andrew Bolton) 2. Construction Projects For the construction industry, the London Olympic and Paralympic Games Organizing Committee said it would involve a 80,000 seat Olympic stadium, an Aquatics Centre, 4 Multi-Sports Arenas, a Velopark, Hockey Center, as well as numerous training, catering broadcasting development and security facilities. (http://www.colby.edu/personal/t/thtieten/trans-jap.html)With regard to the Olympic Village, the Committee also mentioned that it would consist of approximately 4,000 residential accommodation units, which will be the construction of housing 17000 athletes and officials, the formation of more than 200 nations.(Consrtcution Projects of the 2012 London Olympics,2006) The most important is that these long-term achievements are very wide-ranging and, directly or indirectly related to property, redevelopment and construction activities, sustainability, regeneration and infrastructure.(http://www.constructuk.com,2006) 2.1 Master plan in Construction From the report of Construction Projects of the 2012 London Olympics†, explained, the Olympic Park master plan by the London Development Agency (LAD) and BuroHappold from leading industry consultants including engineers, project managers and architects Huokemeisi Team support to sports, Alies and Morrison, Foreign Office Architects, consulting Faithful and Gould and Mott MacDonald.(Construction Projects of the 2012 London Olympics,2006) The overall plan for research, it is easy to find, the Olympic Games will be held at venues across the country with the main focus on the Olympic Park. The park will be located in Stratford, East London, Lower Lea Valley, and houses the main venue of the following: The Olympic Stadium The Aquatics Centre The Hockey Centre The Velopark (Containing Velodrome and BMX Circuit) Four Multi-Sports Areas (in one building) (Construction Projects of the 2012 London Olympics,2006) (London 2012 Constructing the Olympic reality, Andrew Bolton) 2.2 The Strategy for Sustainable Construction The sustainable construction strategy (http://www.dft.gov.uk/about/strategy/transportstrategy/hmtlsustaintranssys?page=2) is a joint industry and Government initiative designed to promote leadership and behavior change, as well as provide the benefit in the construction industry and the overall economy. Its purpose is to achieve sustainable development and construction of a common vision: to provide a clarity business-to-the Governments position, so that a variety of regulations and measures for sustainability; Setting and commitment to higher standards in order to help achieve the specific areas of sustainability; Production industry and the Governments specific commitments to take sustainable construction agenda forward. (The big build: structures Milestones to 27 July 2010, Olympic Delivery Authority, 2009) 3. Transportation By the Sixth Special Report of Session 2006-2007, which belongs to the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games Transport concluded that in all of the plans to provide the delivery system acrossed all the model is fully established, they are expected to reach the propose which bellowed: (Transport for the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympics Games: The Draft Transport plan: Olympic Delivery Authority Response to the Committees Third Report of Session 2006-2007, the House of Commons, 2007) In order to make the best use of existing transport infrastructure, form improve service levels to achieve the best possible value for the money, and only the establishment of new infrastructure where it is vital and leaves a legacy. The use of cost-effective temporary solution, if necessary, to meet the temporary peaks which demand for the travel of the Olympic Games in the absence of inheritance. If the new infrastructure or services needed for the ODAs strategy is to utilize existing expertise and processes to deliver them. The ODA has been delivered with partners in the UK under a series of agreements and Britains well establishment of transportation industries, offering on behalf of railway projects. Partners include Transport for London (TfL), Network Rail and Docklands Light Railway (DLR), each of the implementation of projects of all transportation experience. This experience has been further strengthened directly related to work into the management of recruiting a lot of experience in ODA transport team. ï ¼Ë†London 2012 Accessible Transport Strategy for the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games, May 2008ï ¼â€° 3.1 The strategy for Transport And about the strategy of accessible can use: The 2012 Olympic Games will be a catalyst to improve the whole of London and the UKs transport network accessibility. The Olympic Delivery Authority (ODA) target for 100% of the spectators access by public transport, cycling or on foot to the Olympic Games. And also make sure the ticket to the Games, including free travel by public transport in London for the activities of the day to encourage the spectators to use the transport system. There will be a 35 km pedestrian and cycle paths, an area of increasing. (These slides refer form London 2012 Accessible Transport Strategy for the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games May 2008) 3.11 Docklands Light Railway (DLR) Docklands Light Railway Limited (DLRL) (http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/modesoftransport/1530.aspx)is the organization; with the railway own assets. In the Department of Transportation as part of its role is to oversee operation of the railway and program development to meet the needs of the east. Form the report of the 2012 Olympics; it mentioned that ODA co-funding early procurement form 22 additional rail cars to 55 of the beginning of the formation of three-cars to run in 2012 (rather than two-cars operators).The new requirements, under-river channel expansion of Woolwich Arsenals official development assistance has made a contribution to the signal and power engineering. The first tunneling drivers southwards to Arsenal station completed in December last year. And also a wide range of infrastructure projects across the DLR; which affect a network of 17 to three-car trains in 2012 (in a 50 per cent of the capacity between Lewisham and the Bank to increase). To guaranteed the ability to Prince Regent Station and Customs House official station development assistance funds to serve the Excel event improvement works. Ensure that City Airport expansion on time and below the budget. Then the new platform of DLR and access in Stratford Regional Station to the service needs of lon g-term growth. ODA is co-financing of the North London Line into the operation of the DLR operation, South and East of Stratford Regional Station, which is in progress. (http://www.communities.gov.uk/thamesgateway/overview/london/lewishamï ¼Å'2009) 3.12 London Underground All Line train lengthening the individual increase of 17 per cent capacity (has been already completed, in January 2006), moving block signals will be installed in order to reduce 25 percent in December 2009 journey time, further enhance capacity. In addition, there are several large background schemes between 2009 and 2012; including all District line trains refurbished fulfill the plan. ï ¼Ë†Transport for the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games: The Draft Transport plan: Olympic Delivery Authority Response to the Committees Third report of Session 2006-07, the House of Commons, 2007ï ¼â€° 3.13 National Rail Projects In particular, the ODA is essential to stable away from the Stratford Train parking facilities to the west of the Lea Valley railway lines. West Ham station enhances passenger service for mainline commuter station signals increase the capacity of trains per hour stopping. In a wide range of capabilities, more and more on the design and preparation of Stratford Regional Station to start the project site. In addition, there are eight local, regional or national railway projects schemes to improve railway transportation capacity, reliability and travel for all users (http://www.dgp.utoronto.ca/people/modjeska/Cities/lynch.html), the ambience, as well as the Olympic Games provide specific benefits, these include: (1) Enhanced to a higher frequency among the metro style between Richmond and Stratford-service of the North London Line. (http://www.dft.gov.uk/about/strategy/transportstrategy/hmtlsustaintranssys?page=2) (2) By the summer of 2010 to extend the delivery and reconstruction of East London Line Highbury and Islington, connect with Stratford (http://www.railwaypeople.com/rail-projects/stratford-city-development-17.html), in the North and Crystal Palace in the south of London. (http://www.dft.gov.uk/about/strategy/transportstrategy/hmtlsustaintranssys?page=2)   (3)Between the completion of St Pancras, Stratford International, Ebbsfleet and Paris/Brusseis, it has the high-speed connection. (Transport for the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympics Games: The Draft Transport plan: Olympic Delivery Authority Response to the Committees Third Report of Session 2007-2007, the House of Commons, 2007) (http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200607/cmselect/cmtran/484/48404.htm) 4. Community It is clear that regeneration goal: into a new prosperous and sustainable society of the Olympic Park in east London, and as an investment and development opportunities, the success of the catalyst. During the Olympics, in 246 hectares of Olympic Park facilities include permanent and temporary facilities, including the Olympic stadium, the aquatics center and velodrome. There will also be the Olympic Village, media center and new parks, all over the Lea Valley waterways. ï ¼Ë†, 2009ï ¼â€° After the Olympics, the parks sports legacy will be in fulfilling our plans and to participate in communitys traditional elite sports core of the obligations. The focus of activities and its affiliated schools sports facilities will be retained for sports clubs and local communities, as well as the adaptation of elite and amateur athletes. Another 1 million new homes will develop the Olympic Park itself. These 40% will be used for families; a large proportion of affordable housing.They will participate in all of the elements of a good community: schools, libraries, shops, cafes, restaurants, green space and community facilities, to the development of the major cultural and tourist attractions. ï ¼Ë†The budget for the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games Fourteenth Report of Session 2007-08, Home of Common Community of Public Accountsï ¼â€° Has the improvement of transport services, and many parks are under way, including the Docklands Light Railway extension, an increase of the silver-line capabilities and Stratford Regional Station upgrade.Around the park, people enjoy through the canal Towpath, footpaths and cycle networks, greater access to parks and open spaces. 5. Case study These cases play the significant role for the 2012 London Olympic Games and Paralympic Games, which are Lewisham, Stratford, and Canary Warf. 5.1 Lewisham Lewisham as one of the closest geographical neighbors to the host boroughs, Lewisham represents a gateway to the games and the capital. Lewisham town center is the citys major retail area and an important railway hub with mainline, Docklands Light Railway (DLR) and bus interchanges. Lewisham Couil is ready to care the realization of the Gateway scheme focuses on the city center plan of action. The scheme will provide 1,000 new homes, new shopping and improve the environment. (http://www.communities.gov.uk/thamesgateway/overview/london/lewisham/lewishamtown/)(http://www.communities.gov.uk/thamesgateway/overview/london/lewisham, 2009)The Gateway development is the key to eliminate the existing roundabout to make better use of land is currently surrounded by traffic. Rearrange the road at the junction of the railway line; new development opportunities are being created. This will create a well-designed transport interchange, new housing and new employment opportunities; enhance the existing town center links. (http://www.communities.gov.uk/thamesgateway/overview/london/lewisham2009)In the further investment plans of the High Street, this center with regard to the expansion and reconstruction of Valley shopping center and public areas renovated.At the appropriate time, in the Lewis Grove Island and Engate Street redevelopment may occur as soon as possible. Other areas, the planning consent of more than 200 homes each year, including Thurston Road and Venson Sites. 5.2 Stratford This massive development plan will bring nearly 5,000 homes and 30,000 jobs to Stratford, and has obtained outline-planning consent. Newham Councils Development Control and Licensing Committee approve the Stratford City development; will change rundown rail lands as a major shopping and commercial area. () The plan includes 465,000 square meters of offices, about 11,000 people, 150,500 square meters of retail space, up to the 2000 hotel bedrooms in 4,850 new homes. There is also a drop-in in health centers and primary health care center, plus community facilities including an employment bureau and youth facilities. (,2009) There will be a four-form of primary and secondary school, which could for 900 students, a four-classroom nursery and facilities for lifelong learning, plus a large number of public open spaces, games areas and water features facilities. A library, tourist information centers, nurseries, day-care facilities, public services and security offices, offices and civil society groups and religious sites, facilities, facilities are being planned. (http://www.contractjournal.com/constructionspace/photos/olympic-park/olympic-park-projected-view-looking-south-982.aspx, 2009) The application will now be referred to the Mayor of London, Deputy Prime Ministers Office and the Secretary of State for Transport. (http://www.contractjournal.com/constructionspace/photos/olympic-park/olympic-park-projected-view-looking-south-982.aspx, 2009) Also must rise to a legal agreement between all parties in order to reduce environmental and transport network development. Newham accepted as part of the agreement at any time  £150.4 million pounds welfare of the community. The project covers an area of 73 crosses the railway land, has become with the railway industry to reduce redundant. (http://www.contractjournal.com/constructionspace/photos/olympic-park/olympic-park-projected-view-looking-south-982.aspx, 2009) Consultation exercise has been going on between the local planning authorities, statutory undertakers, transport bodies, the major landowners and local communities. Stratford City scheme, including 4500 for the 11,000 inhabitants, 46.5 million square meters of commercial office space and 15 million square meters of the town center, a total of three department stores and 120 shops and cafes. (http://www.contractjournal.com/constructionspace/photos/olympic-park/olympic-park-projected-view-looking-south-982.aspx, 2009) The development surrounds the Startford Channel Tunnel Rail Link international station, which will open in 2007. The proposed of Stratford City will begin construction in 2006, completed in 2009 following the development of the city center and 2020, the stage of completion. This will create a new business area as a gateway to Europe, only 2 hours from Paris to London. The new Stratford International Station will be placed within easy reach of the railway in Europe. (http://www.rao;waypeople.com/rail-projects/stratford-city-development-17.html, 2009) The development will create local employment opportunities for local people, includin g the 15000 construction jobs and up to 30,000 retail and office work. 5.3 Canary Wharf Canary Wharf is home to a high concentration of headquarters and is an established financial services centre rivalling the City.(Preparations for the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games Risk assessment and management, Thirty-ninth Report of Session 2006-2007, House of Commons Committee of Public Accounts ) Companies, including Barclays Bank, Reuters, Citigroup, HSBC and Morgan Stanley. About 65,000 people work here and the region is expected by 2010, employing 10 million people- including 3,000 employees, to 70,000 volunteers and a lot of contractors. () To the area offer most affordable rates for a number of commercial and industrial property accumulations in London. The A13 and A2 corridors either the River Thames east side of the corridor is more active regions running the new industrial and logistics development. Canary Wharf offers some of the best office space in London. (http://www.telegrapgh.co.uk/sport/othersports/olympics/london2012/5925603/london-2012-olympic-legacy-company-set-to-create-new-east-london-community.html, 2009) Contrast to the Commerce: from High-Profile, award-winning range of the regions Canary Wharf development in a well-developed environmental technology, manufacturing, R D, logistics and distribution centers of industrial facilities. East London City Airport is designed for business travel. Quick check-in service, management personnel can sit less than 30 minutes after the aircraft left the desk. London International Airport is all within 60 minutes of Canary Wharf. The Jubilee line connects Stratford and Canary Wharfs major railway terminals, while the Docklands Light Railway (DLR) to connect Canary Wharf and other East London City and direct. This station serves the heart of Canary Wharfs financial and media district. It architecturally stuns station, includes over 200 shops, waterside bars and restaurants. (http://www.thinkinglondon.html, 2009) 6. Conclusion As we have known, the Olympics take more effects to London, to UK. However, from another side, whether we think about the slides below: The movement of middle class families into urban areas causing property values to rise and having the secondary effect of driving out poorer families The Docklands regeneration was criticized for reinforcing the social divide between rich and poor With 30% post-games housing being affordable to low income families, there will be an imbalance of rich and poor in the society Will the area revert to poverty or gentrify? Maybe above all the slides told that everything has two sides, good and bad. At present, from this research project, it proved that most of the direction of Government doing were advantage, those will bring more effects to people, although bring some Negative aspects. They are unprecedented for a development of this nature.

Moving away from Theme Writing and Finding our Voices Essay -- Writing

Moving away from Theme Writing and Finding our Voices The attempt to discover my "voice" may seem less than insightful for the audience in which this paper is intended. It is quite a relief that I don't have to write a theme, pretending to be an expert on finding voice. The concept of voice is very new for me because I wasn't aware that I was conveying a tone or attitude in my writing that was so profoundly obvious. In preparation for this discussion I have spent time re-reading former assignments trying to "hear" the voice present in them. I think the concept of voice, as well as the new deliberate avoidance from theme writing, has put the entire class in the same boat. In this respect our writing talents are maturing. If the paper does not provide any insight on the new and powerful creative tool called voice, in the very least it will have benefitted me by helping me explore the voice in my writings. For that, each of you will have this opportunity to become familiar with me, the person and writer, through voice. Long before I decided to become an English major, I had decided I was a good writer. If I had to use one word to describe myself as a writer, it would be "thrifty". I could whip off papers that I was asked to write, on topics which I generally knew nothing about. Many of us could testify to the truth that we are conditioned to become theme writing specialists. It is almost as if we have been coerced to believe that writing of any other kind will push creativity beyond it's acceptable limits. I was continually praised for my writing "thriftiness". No matter what the subject was, I was an expert. The extensive use of latinate words in my work convinced the reader I knew exactly what I was talking about. I had ... ...ion, I would presume that people believe this because they weren't comfortable with the limitations imposed on them that made creating good writing, seem like an impossibility. We all struggle to discover whether we are good writers, and we look to our professor's paper evaluations to determine this. The promising thing about this class, is that we get to serve as mentors for each other. For this one time, we may submit our work to a larger audience for evaluation. Our success in writing doesn't have to hinge on the personal preferences and standards of just one person, our professor. I am optimistic, because although I continue to struggle with writing in voice, I have one and therefore I know I will discover it. It will enrich my writing enough so that I know I am capable of more than mechanical theme writing. Now that you hear my voice, what is it that you hear? Moving away from Theme Writing and Finding our Voices Essay -- Writing Moving away from Theme Writing and Finding our Voices The attempt to discover my "voice" may seem less than insightful for the audience in which this paper is intended. It is quite a relief that I don't have to write a theme, pretending to be an expert on finding voice. The concept of voice is very new for me because I wasn't aware that I was conveying a tone or attitude in my writing that was so profoundly obvious. In preparation for this discussion I have spent time re-reading former assignments trying to "hear" the voice present in them. I think the concept of voice, as well as the new deliberate avoidance from theme writing, has put the entire class in the same boat. In this respect our writing talents are maturing. If the paper does not provide any insight on the new and powerful creative tool called voice, in the very least it will have benefitted me by helping me explore the voice in my writings. For that, each of you will have this opportunity to become familiar with me, the person and writer, through voice. Long before I decided to become an English major, I had decided I was a good writer. If I had to use one word to describe myself as a writer, it would be "thrifty". I could whip off papers that I was asked to write, on topics which I generally knew nothing about. Many of us could testify to the truth that we are conditioned to become theme writing specialists. It is almost as if we have been coerced to believe that writing of any other kind will push creativity beyond it's acceptable limits. I was continually praised for my writing "thriftiness". No matter what the subject was, I was an expert. The extensive use of latinate words in my work convinced the reader I knew exactly what I was talking about. I had ... ...ion, I would presume that people believe this because they weren't comfortable with the limitations imposed on them that made creating good writing, seem like an impossibility. We all struggle to discover whether we are good writers, and we look to our professor's paper evaluations to determine this. The promising thing about this class, is that we get to serve as mentors for each other. For this one time, we may submit our work to a larger audience for evaluation. Our success in writing doesn't have to hinge on the personal preferences and standards of just one person, our professor. I am optimistic, because although I continue to struggle with writing in voice, I have one and therefore I know I will discover it. It will enrich my writing enough so that I know I am capable of more than mechanical theme writing. Now that you hear my voice, what is it that you hear?

Vicos New Science: The Unity of Piety and Wisdom :: Philosophy Philosophical Essays

Vico's New Science: The Unity of Piety and Wisdom ABSTRACT: In Vico’s New Science wisdom is understood in a double sense. On the one hand, wisdom means the poetic wisdom that provides intelligibility for the peoples of the nations during their early stages of development. On the other hand, wisdom means the noetic knowledge gained by the Vichian scientist who contemplates concrete historicity in the light of the New Science. By means of an examination of three principle aspects of Vico’s science, and by looking to his conception of the origin of the most rudimentary institutions of humanity, primordial piety— fear of the mythic other— is shown to be the origin of poetic wisdom. And, by focusing on the necessity of surmounting the conceit of scholars and the conceit of nations for a science of universal history, philosophical piety— openness to the wholly Other— is revealed as the ground of philosophical wisdom. This paper sets out to show how Vico’s science of the principles of humani ty is, at the same time, a science of the unity of piety and wisdom. In the final paragraph of his magnum opus, the New Science, Giambattista Vico (1668-1744) provides a summarizing statement concerning the overall character of the work: Insomma, da tutto cià ² che si Ã…   quest' opera ragionato, Ã…   da finalmente conchiudersi che questa Scienza porta indivisiblmente seco lo studio della piet†¦, e che, se non siesi pio, non si puà ² daddovero esser saggio. [To sum up, from all that has been set forth in this work, it is to be finally concluded that this science carries inseparably with it the study of piety, and that he who is not pious cannot be truly wise.] Why did Vico conclude the New Science with the assertion that, from everything set forth in this work, this science carries inseparably with it the study of piety? And why did he choose to end the New Science with the declaration: "He who is not pious, cannot be truly wise"? In what sense is Vico's New Science a science of piety? Vico's conception of the ideal eternal history— the universal pattern of the histories of all the nations— signifies a passage from the traditional metaphysical conception of history, as the history of beings, to a metaphysic or science of the certain as the certain reflects or embodies the common nature of nations. This common nature of nations, moreover, is seen in the light of divine providence.

a day in my life :: essays research papers

The Day My Life Changed I stepped through the door to my grandmother and grandfather's home without even aknock. My grandpa looked up from the television he was watching, from his cozy comer chair.He had a head of snowy white hair gleaming in the room. Over his broad body, hung a navy bluedress shirt and a fuzzy cardigan sweater. He wore slacks, held up awkwardly by a belt, allowinghis small potbelly to hang over it. His face showed the years of worry and stress, and his whitebushy eyebrows and growing second chin showed his old age. His smile greeted me. As I drewclose to him, his aging arms reached out and wrapped around my body and pulled me into a warmloving hug. As he released me from the hug, I said, "Grandpa, I have some news I want you tohear" as I plopped down in the chair beside him. "I wanted to let you know that I am getting married," I told him.The room was left in a dead silence, frozen for a brief period of time, as we recovered from the intensity of the news I had brought him. Reaching for the remote to turn off the television, my grandfather looked at me. Before he could say a word, the excitement of an unseen grandmother came from the kitchen.Both our eyes looked toward the cheerful light and the sounds of my grandmother's excitemen tAs the excitement faded away, his eyes turned toward mine. Awaiting his comments, my eyes were open wide. Excitement had filled my body, because of the news I had just brought him."Wonderful, go ahead and tell me all about it," he exclaimed.Well, I woke up this morning just as I always do, but this time it was to the ringing of the phone. I reached for the phone and said "Hello," and on the other end was my boyfriend. He said he needed to see me as soon as possible, so I said "OK," and went to meet him. When I arrived at his house, he met me at the door and asked me to come in and have a seat on the couch, I was a little worried at this time. I sit down on the couch and he kneeled down in front of me on one knee, I just looked at him knowing now, what he was up to. This is what he said, "I know wehave been through a lot here lately, but I also kn ow that we can go through a lot more as long as

English 101 Argumentation Essay

The new smoke- free policy at Suny Orange has many students outraged. Student smokers are being shunned for their addiction and are now forced to walk to the parking lot during class breaks for their fix. Our society is out casting them, even though it’s still legal, available, and enjoyable for many. However, smoking on campus presents several problems to consider. Smoking is contagious. It spreads like wild fire from one person to the next. Students may find themselves being peer pressured to smoke because it’s ‘’the cool thing to do’’, or ‘’everyone is doing it’’.Especially since our economy is in a recession, many people are stressed out, and vulnerable. A group of people smoking around a non-smoker creates a bad environment for the non- smoker, and they may be influenced into smoking. It’s no mystery that cigarettes are extremely addictive. If a student caves to peer pressure just once, they could become a slave to the habit for the rest of their life. When I left my English 101 class the other day, I witnessed a 9 year old boy skateboarding up to a student who was smoking and the boy asked him if he could have a ‘’cigg’’.The student found him amusing and told him he shouldn’t be smoking but, not before handing him a cigarette. With the ban of smoking on campus, it will greatly reduce these situations from happening. Smokers tend to litter. Seeing a smoker flick a cigarette butt on the floor is an image that is all too familiar. With the amount of people who smoke today, it’s simply bound to cause a mess. A college setting shouldn’t be burdened with a dirty landscape. It’s very uncomfortable to walk to class surrounded by garbage. Also, the littering harms our environment.Birds, fish, flowers, and many critters are at risk. The cigarette butt still contains all the harmful chemicals that are toxic. They aren’t biodegradab le so they will build up very rapidly and animals may confuse them for food. In addition, each discarded cigarette butt possesses a potential fire. If a fire where to occur many people’s lives would be put into danger because of the overcrowding O. C. C. C faces. The butt just needs to land somewhere with a little dry vegetation then; with a soft wind, it will burst into flames and spread from building to building.Unfortunately, smokers don’t seem to take this threat very seriously. The smoke cigarettes emit into the air. It’s practically impossible to walk between buildings without inhaling a lungful of cigarette smoke; especially when smokers light up just outside doorways and force everyone who wants to enter to walk right by them. All the smokers seem to completely disregard the fact that other people don’t want to be indulging in their bad habits. These smokers aren’t just polluting the air outside, but the air indoors as well.The second someo ne open the door all the smoke rushes into the building. It’s irritating to have to breathe in these harmful chemicals. It’s an instant headache when a classmate reeking of smoke sits next to me. It also doesn’t help with studying either. While leaving school yesterday I was immersed into a cloud of cigarette smoke and I couldn’t stop coughing, my eyes began tearing and I was extremely uncomfortable. Students are forced to face situations like this on a daily basis, and sadly many have become accustomed to it.I’m still trying to wrap my head around why so many students are against the new smoke-free policy. It’s not like they are being stripped of their ability to smoke their cancer causing tobacco. It’s just not worth it to have them diminishing the college’s appeal, while hurting themselves, other students, our environment, and potentially our school. Maybe in the future the college will assign designated smoking areas which don’t affect other smoke-free students but, in the meantime there will be no smoking on college grounds.

The Emerging Role of Electronic Markets

Internet-based electronic marketplaces leverage information technology to match buyers and sellers with increased effectiveness and lower transaction costs, leading to more efficient, â€Å"friction-free† markets. The Emerging Role of Electronic Marketplaces on the Internet Markets play a central role in the economy, facilitating the Yannis Bakos exchange of information, goods, services, and payments. In the process, they create economic value for buyers, sellers, market intermediaries, and for society at large.Recent years have seen a dramatic increase in the role of information technology in markets, both in traditional markets, and in the emergence of electronic marketplaces, such as the multitude of Internet-based online auctions. Functions of a Market Markets (electronic or otherwise) have three main functions, summarized in Table 1: matching buyers and sellers; facilitating the exchange of information, goods, services and payments associated with market transactions; and providing an institutional infrastructure, such as a legal and regulatory framework, that enables the efficient functioning of the market.In a modern economy, the first two functions are provided by intermediaries, while the institutional infrastructure is typically the province of governments. Internet-based electronic marketplaces leverage information technology to perform these functions with increased effectiveness and reduced transaction costs, resulting in more efficient, â€Å"friction-free† markets. Matching Buyers and Sellers. Markets â€Å"clear† by matching demand and supply. This process of matching buyers’ demand with sellers’ product offerings has three main components: determining Matching uyers and sellers †¢ Determination of product offerings – Product features offered by sellers – Aggregation of different products †¢ Search (of buyers for sellers and of sellers for buyers) – Price and product information à ¢â‚¬â€œ Matching seller offerings with buyer preferences †¢ Price discovery – Process and outcome in determination of prices Facilitation of transactions†¢ Logistics – Delivery of information, good, or service to buyer †¢ Settlement – Transfer of payment to seller †¢ Trust – Credit system, reputations, rating agencies like Consumer Reports and Better Business Bureaus Institutional infrastucture †¢ Legal – Commercial code, contract law, dispute resolution, intellectual property protection †¢ Regulatory – Rules and regulations, monitoring, enforcement Table 1. Functions of a market COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM August 1998/Vol. 41, No. 8 35 Establishing a dialogue and a sense of community among customers can create value by enabling the sharing of experiences, problems and solutions, but also allows the collection of important information about individual consumers. product offerings, search, and price discovery. The behavior of buyers, sellers, and intermediaries is motivated by their desire to maximize their private utility. When markets function well, this also leads to an efficient allocation of productive resources. Viewed this way, markets are the engine and steering system of our economy.Markets provide sellers with information about demand that allows them to employ economic inputs such as capital, technology and labor, and develop products with characteristics that match the needs of buyers. Sellers determine a schedule of product offerings that they expect will maximize their profits based on: †¢ information about buyer demand; †¢ the cost of inputs; †¢ the available technology for production and distribution of the information, goods and services purchased by the buyers; and, †¢ the transaction costs of administering production, distribution, and payment. Buyers select their purchases from the available product offerings after considering factors such as price and product characteristics. In obtaining and processing this information, buyers face search costs.These osts include the opportunity cost of time spent searching, as well as associated expenditures such as driving, telephone calls, computer fees, magazine subscriptions, etc. Typically, sellers exploit these search costs by raising their prices, and thus enjoy higher profits. Similarly sellers may face search costs in locating qualified buyers for their products, such as market research, advertising and sales calls. A key function of markets in our economic system is price discovery, which is the process of determining the prices at which demand and supply â€Å"clear† and trade occurs. For certain markets, such as financial markets, this is their primary function.Markets can employ a number of mechanisms for price discovery. 36 August 1998/Vol. 41, No. 8 COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM For instance, some financial markets use one or more of the several types of auctions to determine prices, such as the â€Å"call market† auction at the opening of a trading day at the New York Stock Exchange, when bids are accepted up to a certain time and exchange occurs when the market opens. This is the first price that is communicated via the stock market ticker to the market at large, kicking off a day of â€Å"continuous market† trading. Other markets, such as the traditional automobile dealership, employ negotiation between buyers and sellers until a price is reached.In still other markets, such as the typical department store, merchants make firm offers that customers can either take or leave. Facilitation of Transactions. The matching function of a market establishes a bilateral relationship between a buyer and a seller. After a transaction is agreed upon, the product sold must be transported to the buyer (logistics), and payment must be transferred to the seller (settlement). Markets typically incorporate mechanisms for logistics and settlement: when a tr avel agent uses an airline reservations system to book a flight, the system will generate the itinerary and the ticket, and will process a credit card payment.Furthermore, market transactions require the establishment of a certain level of trust, which protects buyers, sellers and intermediaries from the opportunistic behavior of other market participants. For instance, this trust role may include banks issuing letters of credit, credit reporting bureaus, or rating agencies such as Consumer Reports and Better Business Bureaus, which keep track of product information and seller reputations, and thus discourage opportunistic behavior. Finally, markets provide the physical infrastructure that allows transactions between the buyers and the sellers to take place. This includes real assets such as physical structures and trading floors, computers and communication networks, and transportation systems. Institutional Infrastructure.The institutional infrastructure specifies the laws, rules and regulations that govern market transactions, such as issues related to contract law, dispute resolution, and intellectual property protection, and provides mechanisms for their enforcement. In addition, the dynamics of electronic markets may raise certain antitrust issues. For example, there are large economies of scale in distribution, as a single online retailer or intermediary can serve a very large market. There are also potential demand-side economies of scale in payment mechanisms and software. These may lead to a winner-takeall market structure [1] with one or a few firms dominating the market. Purchasing a new home – Research city and neighborhood – Find a house – Inspections, title research, appraisals, contracts – Get a mortgage – Moving services – Decorators, furniture, etc. †¢ Planning a vacation – Research destination – Arrange accommodations and travel – Purchase maps, books, information – C heck out weather, items to take †¢ Purchasing a car – Research make and model – Select a dealer – Get a loan or arrange a lease – Purchase insurance Table 2. Components of consumer processes and transaction/distribution cost How the Internet Affects Markets Electronic marketplaces, especially Internet-based markets, are having a major impact on the roles of markets discussed previously [2, 12]. Product Offerings.Two major emerging trends distinguish products in electronic marketplaces from their traditional counterparts: increased personalization and customization of product offerings, and the aggregation and disaggregation of information-based product components to match customer needs and to support new pricing strategies. Electronic marketplaces support personalization and customization in two ways: †¢ Consumer tracking technology allows the identification of individual buyers; information about these buyers, such as relevant demographics, co nsumer profiles, or comparison with the known preferences of similar consumers, can be used to discover or estimate their specific preferences. Information-rich products lend themselves to cost-effective customization; for instance, delivering an electronic newspaper tailored to the interests of an individual reader need not be more costly than delivering the same copy to all subscribers. Current personalization and customization technologies use either rule-based systems like Broadvision (www. broadvision. com) that draw upon sets of expert rules, or collaborative filtering systems like the Firefly Network (www. firefly. net) that utilize the feedback and experiences of consumers with a profile of likes and dislikes similar to the targeted buyer. This allows the practice of â€Å"one-to-one marketing,† which is based on understanding individual consumers.For instance, establishing a dialogue and a sense of community among customers can create value by enabling the sharing of experiences, problems and solutions, but also allows the collection of important information about individual consumers. The ultimate objective is to provide customized services according to individual preferences, whether expressed or inferred. Increased selling effectiveness comes from being able to design appropriate products to address the needs of individual consumers, and from being able to identify the moment when a customer’s purchasing decision is most likely to occur and to be prepared for that moment, one step ahead of the competition. When determining their product mix, sellers must decide which product components or features will be included in each product offering.For example, the developer of an operating system must decide which features to implement, and whether they will be marketed and priced individually or in a single bundle. These decisions are driven by the relative cost of different product bundles, which includes the following types of costs: †¢ Production cost: the cost of producing additional units for inclusion in the bundle, including storage, processing, and communications costs incurred in the process. †¢ Transaction and distribution cost: the cost of distributing a bundle of goods and administering the related transactions, such as arranging for payment. †¢ Binding cost: the cost of binding the component goods together for distribution as a bundle, such as formatting changes necessary to include news stories from wire services in a newspaper bundle. Menu cost: the cost of administering multiple prices. If a mixed bundling strategy is pursued, where the available components are offered in different combinations, then a set of n goods may require as many as 2n prices (one for each subset of one or more goods). COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM August 1998/Vol. 41, No. 8 37 c Marginal Costs Mean Valuation c0 Marginal production, distribution, and transactions are high enough to make both bundled and unbundled Unbund led sales dominate sales unprofitable bundling Bundling is more profitable than unbundled sales Distribution Costs d Figure 1. Phase diagram for bundling and unbundling strategies as a function of marginal costInternet marketplaces are changing the constraints imposed by these costs and thus are fostering new types of intermediaries that create value by aggregating services and products that traditionally were offered by separate industries. For instance, Table 2 shows the components of three processes that generate value for consumers. In traditional markets, these components are provided by separate industries. A consumer in the market for a new car might select a make and model based on the experience collected from test drives, research from auto magazines and Consumer Reports, and recommendations from friends. She would then agree on price, order the vehicle, and take delivery through a car dealer, arrange financing through a bank, and purchase insurance from an insurance compa ny.By dramatically lowering the transaction, distribution and binding costs, the Internet has allowed intermediaries such as Auto-byTel (www. auto-by-tel. com) or Microsoft’s Carpoint (www. carpoint. com) to offer all of these products and services, with the exception of an actual test drive. Similar intermediaries are emerging in other areas, such as the Travelocity (www. travelocity. com) and Microsoft’s Expedia (www. expedia. com) travel services aggregators, or Microsoft’s Boardwalk Web site that will aggregate products and services related to real estate transactions. The Case of Information Goods. Digital information goods, such as news articles, digital images or music, allow perfect copies to be created and distributed almost without cost via the Internet.The Internet is thus precipitating a dramatic reduction in the marginal costs of production and distribution for these goods, while micropayment technologies are reducing the transaction costs for their commercial exchange. Bakos and Brynjolfsson [6] point out that this creates new opportunities for repackaging content through strategies such as bundling, site licensing, subscriptions, rentals, differential pricing and per-use fees. All of these schemes can be thought Figure 2. ComputerESP price comparison engine 38 August 1998/Vol. 41, No. 8 COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM of as either aggregating or disaggregating information goods along some dimension.For instance, aggregation can take place across products, as when software programs are bundled for sale in a software suite or when access to various content of an online service is provided for a fixed fee. Aggregation can also take place across consumers, as with the provision of a site license to multiple users for a fixed fee, or over time, as with subscriptions. Many information goods have been bundled solely to save on transaction, distribution and menu costs, yet these costs are much lower on the Internet. Thus software and othe r types of content may be increasingly disaggregated and metered, as on-demand software applets or as individual news stories and stock quotes.Independent of the cost considerations mentioned previously, Bakos and Brynjolfsson [6] show that aggregation of arge numbers of information goods can be a powerful strategy that results in higher profits for sellers as well as a socially desirable wider distribution of the goods. This is due to the ability of aggregation to change the shape of the demand curve faced by the sellers to one that is easier to exploit. Aggregation can be a surprisingly profitable strategy when marginal production costs are low and consumers are homogeneous. Bakos and Brynjolfsson’s analysis provides a framework to understand the emergence of intermediaries that aggregate online content, such as America Online and Yahoo! , as well as the increasing use of subscription pricing in the sale of information goods by companies such as Netscape, Dow-Jones, or Reut ers.Figure 1 graphically summarizes this discussion and depicts the impact of marginal cost c and distribution/transaction cost d on the desirability of bundling large numbers of information goods. Search. Electronic marketplaces lower the buyers’ cost to obtain information about the price and product features of seller offerings as well as the sellers’ cost to communicate information about their prices and product characteristics. For instance, a buyer in the market for a 400MHz Pentium II microprocessor can easily compare the prices of different sellers by using a specialized search engine like Pricewatch (www. pricewatch. com) or ComputerESP (www. computeresp. com), as shown in Figure 2.Similarly, links to manufacturers’ Web sites can be used to obtain detailed information about the product features of different laptop computers. By lowering buyers’ search costs, electronic markets increase economic efficiency. Not only do buyers incur lower costs even after considering more product offerings, they also benefit from being able to identify and purchase products that better match their needs. Several Internet-based technologies assist buyers’ searching: multimedia, high bandwidth, and rating sites provide more product information. Search engines help buyers identify appropriate seller offerings. The search engines can be hierarchical directories (like Yahoo! , generic tools (like AltaVista in early 1998), or specialized tools that work best in the context of specific markets (such as Pricewatch and ComputerESP for computers and peripherals, or Expedia and Travelocity for airline tickets and other travel products).Intelligent agents such as Bargainfinder (bf. cstar. ac. com/bf) or Jango (www. jango. com) have been developed to scout the Web and compare product offerings by price or features on the behalf of the buyers. These technologies keep lowering buyers’ search costs. The lower search costs enable new markets to e merge. For example, low buyer search costs and global reach allowed Onsale. com (www. onsale. om) to create markets in goods like secondhand cameras; otherwise the search costs would be too high to enable potential buyers and sellers to find each other in a conventional market. Several other intermediaries are emerging to facilitate the process of matching buyers and sellers. Among many others they include Yahoo! , Pricewatch, Netbot’s Jango, and several other search engines, Web directories and shopping agents. They also include providers for product information (e. g. , CNet, trade magazines), recommendations and personalization (e. g. , Firefly Network), and information about sellers such as Bizrate. Price Discovery. Electronic marketplaces enable new types of price discovery to be employed in different markets.For example, some airlines auction last-minute unsold seats to the highest bidders, and Web-based auctions at Onsale. com have created for consumer goods markets th at function like the financial markets. Intermediaries such as Priceline (www. priceline. com) allow buyers to specify product requirements and the amount they’re willing to pay, and then make corresponding offers to the participating sellers, reversing the traditional functioning of retail markets. Finally, agents such as Kasbah (ecommerce. media. mit. edu/kasbah) and Tete-a-Tete (ecommerce. media. mit. edu/tete-a-tete) that can negotiate purchases on behalf of buyers and sellers, may restructure the price discovery process in Internet marketplaces [11].The ability to customize products, combined with the ability of sellers to access substantial information about prospective buyers, such as demographics, preferences and past shopping behavior, is greatly improving sellers’ ability to price discriminate—that COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM August 1998/Vol. 41, No. 8 39 is, to charge different prices for different buyers. Price discrimination is a powerful tool that al lows sellers to increase their profits, and reduces the consumer surplus enjoyed by buyers. On the other hand, price discrimination enables sellers to service buyers who would otherwise be priced out of the market, an outcome that increases economic efficiency.These new types of price discovery, such as the ability of buyers to make offers and the ability to conduct electronic negotiations between buyer and seller agents, are changing the â€Å"microstructure† of consumer markets. Finance theory has shown that market microstructure affects both the efficiency of markets and the bargaining power of their participants. The increasing importance of electronic commerce emphasizes the need to carry this type of research analysis to electronic marMarkketplaces. It is unclear who the beneficiaup ries of this process will be. The ability to r implement different price discovery mechanisms may result in more efficient marr/2 kets, thus benefiting buyers and hurting inefficient sellers . As menu costs decrease, sellers will move away from fixed pricing, and more prices will become negotiable [7].While savvy buyers may benefit, the 0 ability to negotiate prices may not be pleasant or result in a good deal, as many visitors to auto dealerships have discovered. Furthermore, when sellers are better informed, they are likely to increase their profits by charging different prices to different buyers. Economic theory predicts that buyers with more bargaining power, typically the more affluent ones, will fare better in this situation. Facilitation. The cost of logistics—the process of transporting products from the seller to the buyer— has been estimated at more than 10% of the GNP [8]. Electronic marketplaces improve information sharing between buyers and sellers, helping lower the cost of logistics and promoting quick, just-intime deliveries and reduced inventories.The distribution of information goods such as newspapers, music, videos and software, is lik ely to be completely transformed, as the information infrastructure will replace physical distribution systems. Sellers in Internet marketplaces are typically responsible for delivery to their customers, and increasingly contract with third-party providers for direct delivery from the manufacturer to the final consumer, reducing costs and time-to-delivery. Thus, direct sellers like Dell Computer are squeezing out traditional intermediaries such as wholesalers and distributors, while delivery providers such as FedEx and 40 August 1998/Vol. 41, No. 8 COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACMUPS are emerging as major Internet intermediaries, because of their logistics expertise and their economies of scale in distribution. Electronic payment systems will further lower transaction costs in Internet marketplaces, and micropayment systems will lower the cost of small transactions, enabling new pricing strategies such as the metering of software use. As face-to-face marketplaces are replaced by electronic ones, there is increasing need to protect market participants from opportunistic behavior. Technologies such as public key cryptography can provide security and authentication of transactions, while intermediaries like Bizrate (www. bizrate. om) will use information from consumers to keep track of merchants’ reputaAs search costs fall from very high to moderate, new markets emerge, and both sellers and buyers benefit. However, if search costs continue to fall, market prices fall and sellers are made worse off, while buyers benefit from the lower prices and their improved ability to find products that fit their needs. r 2/4t r 2/t market breakdown buyer search cost Figure 3. The impact of buyer search costs in a differentiated market tions.Credit bureaus and credit card companies will provide credit information or guarantee payment for consumers. Finally, intermediaries like Verisign (www. verisign. om) are emerging as â€Å"certificate authorities† that match legal id entities to the possession of cryptographic keys—a public key infrastructure. Internet Marketplaces and Competition Impact of Lower Search Costs. The ability of Internet marketplaces to reduce search costs for price and product information may significantly affect competition. Bakos [4, 5] shows that lower buyer search costs in electronic marketplaces promote price competition among sellers. This effect will be most dramatic in commodity markets, where intensive price competition can eliminate all seller profits. It will also be significant in markets where products are differentiated, reducing the monopoly power enjoyed by sellers, and leading to lower prices and seller profits.Figure 3 shows the equilibrium prices for a differentiated good with zero marginal cost, which The dynamics of friction-free markets are not attractive for sellers that had previously depended on geography or customer ignorance to insulate them from the low-cost sellers in the market. consumers value at r and has a degree of differentiation t. As search costs fall from very high to moderate, new markets emerge, and both sellers and buyers benefit. However, if search costs continue to fall, sellers are made worse off since buyers can more easily find the lowest-cost seller, while buyers benefit from the lower prices and their improved ability to find products that fit their needs.The dynamics of friction-free markets are not attractive for sellers that had previously depended on geography or customer ignorance to insulate them from the low-cost sellers in the market. As geography becomes less important, new sources of product differentiation, such as customized features or service or innovation, will become more important, at least for those sellers who don’t have the lowest cost of production. Also, like an arms race in which both sides develop increasingly powerful weapons, sellers can exploit the reduction in menu costs to compensate for the lower search costs in electr onic marketplaces. Specifically, sellers can make it difficult to compare the price of alternative product offerings, and they can attempt to collect information about buyers that allows more effective price discrimination.Airlines, for example, have implemented extremely complicated and ever-changing fare structures, flight restrictions, and ticket availability, sometimes offering hundreds of fares for travel between certain pairs of destinations. It is also interesting to note that when informational inefficiencies prevail, a large number of sellers does not necessarily result in a competitive and efficient market. If search costs are high, individual sellers do not have a strong incentive to lower their prices because few buyers would discover them. As the number of sellers increases, it becomes more difficult for buyers to locate discounters, and thus the market may become more monopolistic as the number of sellers increases!This behavior is likely in certain markets with little or no advertising, such as some markets for professional legal and medical ser- ices. Internet marketplaces could provide price cutters with the means to reach a larger fraction of the buyers, and thus undermine the monopolistic nature of these markets. While there is much speculation about the effect that electronic marketplaces have on prices, thus far there has been little systematic analysis. One exploratory study by Bailey and Brynjolfsson [3] did not find much evidence that prices on the Internet were lower than prices for the same goods sold via traditional retail channels. Their analysis was based on data from 52 Internet and conventional retailers for 337 distinct titles of books, music compact discs, and software.Bailey and Brynjolfsson provide several possible explanations for their unexpected findings, including the possibility that searching on the Internet during the sample period was not as easy as is sometimes assumed, that the demographics of the typical Internet u ser encouraged a higher price equilibrium, that many of the Internet retailers were still experimenting with pricing strategies, and that Internet retailers were differentiating their products (for example, via delivery options or customized recommendations). Clearly, more empirical research is needed in this area. Increasing Differentiation and Lowering the Cost of Product Information. A higher degree of product differentiation leads to an increase in seller profits, which may partially or completely offset the decrease caused by lower search costs. Sellers in electronic markets will thus want increasingly to differentiate their products, possibly utilizing the personalization and customization technologies discussed earlier.Buyers in a differentiated market face two types of search costs: the cost of obtaining price information and the cost of obtaining information about the product characteristics of a seller’s offering. If sellers can control the type of electronic market introduced, they should favor a system emphasizing product information rather than price-shopping. COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM August 1998/Vol. 41, No. 8 41 A key variable for such a system is the cost of product information relative to the cost of price information about the product. For instance, an electronic marketplace designed to promote priceshopping makes it easy to compare price information, but might still require a higher-cost inquiry (such as a visit) to obtain detailed product information.For example, a buyer looking for a computer monitor on the Internet can easily compare prices from a large number of sellers, but then must obtain and evaluate the monitors’ specifications, assess the sellers’ reputations and return policies, and ideally locate a display model at a showroom or at a colleague’s office. By contrast, an electronic marketplace can be designed to promote competition based on product features. For example, high-quality multimedia product descriptions in standardized formats could help identify product offerings matching the buyer’s preferences, while price information could be left out of these descriptions or could be obscured by offering a large number of prices and making it difficult for the buyers to figure out which price actually applies. tained as electronic intermediaries gain a significant market share. Instead, the physical experience component might be unbundled to a physical intermediary.Auto-by-Tel, for example, may pay a fee to the intermediary where the test drive took place, a service that could be provided by a traditional dealership, but also by a specialized showroom or a car rental company. Internet-based electronic marketplaces are still at a formative stage, and it is hard to fully predict their impact on the structure of markets. However it is becoming clear that they will promote greater economic efficiency, and help sustain economic growth. In the process, they are creating major tra nsformations, full of strategic opportunities for intermediaries ready to compete by adding value for buyers and sellers rather than by exploiting information asymmetries.  References 1. Arthur, B. Increasing returns and the new world of business. Harvard Business Rev. , (July–Aug. 1996), 100–109. 2. Bailey, J. and Bakos, Y. An exploratory study of the emerging role of electronic intermediaries. International J. Electronic Commerce 1, 3 (Spring 1997).3. Bailey, J. and Brynjolfsson, E. In search of friction-free markets: An exploratory analysis of prices for books, CDs and software sold on the Internet. In Proceedings of the 25th Telecommunications Policy Research Conference (Alexandria, VA, Sept. 1997). www. stern. nyu. edu/~bakos/big. pdf.

Affects of Low Socio-economic Status in Children Essay

Socio-economic status remains a theme of great interest to those who study children’s development. This interest derives from a belief that high socio-economic status families pay for their children an array of services, goods, parental actions, and social connections that potentially redound to the benefit of children and a concern that many low socio-economic status children lack access to those same resources and experiences, thus putting them at risk for developmental problems (Briscoe, 1994). The interest in socio-economic status as a worldwide construct persists despite evidence that there is wide inconsistency in what children experience within every socio-economic status level, despite evidence that the link between socio-economic status and child well-being varies as a function of geography, and culture, and despite evidence that the relation between socio-economic status and child well-being can be disrupted by catastrophes and internal strife (Bornstein, Hahn, Suwalsky & Haynes, 2003, p. 45). The major factor that affects child development is the socio-economic status. It is an indicator of a person’s social and economic standing, measured through a combination of income, level of education, residency, occupation, and social status in the community (Briscoe, 1994). Families with a high socio-economic status often have more success because they typically have more access to more resources to improve their child’s development (Bornstein, Hahn, Suwalsky & Haynes, 2003, p. 54). They are able to afford high-quality child care and books that would encourage children to learn. Children from low socio-economic status families lack the financial, educational and social support they need to be considered equivalent to children from high socio-economic status families. These differences can cause a child to become unconfident, non-motivated, and even isolation from society. It is a problem that could stay with the child through adolescences and on into adulthood (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002). It is only as an adult that the person has the independence and the ability to change his socio-economic status. He makes the choice of where to live, what job to pursue, how he fits in society; becoming his own person but a child can not (Bornstein, Hahn, Suwalsky & Haynes, 2003, p. 223). Family’s Influence on a Child’s Educational Success The family is a key element in every person’s life. They have the greatest impact on a child’s socialization and their development. Socialization is a learned behavior that remains with a human being his entire life. Family influences nearly every aspect of children’s life, most significantly, their education. Increasing evidence indicates that schools are not solely responsible for promoting our children’s academics and success; rather, families must be engaged in helping youths develop the understanding and skills they need to function in tomorrow’s workplace (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002). Therefore, the question is not whether parents influence education, but rather how and to what degree they do. A variety of explanations exist, including the size of the family, the parenting techniques, and the family’s economic status. Three major constructs are believed to be parents’ basic involvement decisions. First, a parents’ role construction defines parents’ viewpoint about what they are supposed to do in their children’s education and appears to set up the basic range of actions that parents construe as important, necessary, and permissible for their own actions with and on behalf of children. Second, parents’ sense of efficacy for helping their children succeed in school focuses on the degree to which parents believe that through their contribution, they can exert positive influence on their children’s educational outcomes. Third, general invitations, demands, and opportunities for involvement refer to parents’ opinion that the child and school want them to be involved (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002). However, even well-designed school programs welcoming involvement will meet with only limited success if they do not address issues of parental role construction and parental sense of efficacy for helping children succeed in their schools. Academic Attainment and Low Socio-economic Status For over 70 years findings on the relationship between socio-economic status and intellectual/ academic competence has accumulated. The association between socio-economic status and cognitive performance begins in infancy. Numerous studies have documented that poverty and low parental education are associated with lower levels of school achievement and IQ later in childhood (Bornstein, Hahn, Suwalsky & Haynes, 2003, p. 103+). There has been some debate regarding which aspects of socio-economic status most strongly connect to cognitive development. Each socio-economic status measure used in the Health Examination Survey (family income, maternal education, paternal education) highlighted intellectual attainment, with education being the best predictor. Maternal education was a stronger predictor than paternal education. Maternal and paternal education is good predictor. Socio-economic status accounts for about 5% of the variance in academic achievement. Among the traditional measures of socio-economic status, family income accounts for the greatest amount of variance. In a recent study, it has been found that each socio-economic status indicator (income, education, occupation) was associated with better parenting, which in turn affected school achievement via skill-building activities and school behavior. Evidence suggests a particularly strong relation between socio-economic status and verbal skills. Major differences were found in the language proficiency of children from high socio-economic status and low socio-economic status families. The relation between socio-economic status and cognitive attainment may be quite complex, with different components of socio-economic status contributing to the development of particular cognitive skills in different ways and with some components of socio-economic status serving to moderate the effects of other components. Several analyses have indicated that the relations for family income and parental education depend on the number of siblings present in the household (Bornstein, Hahn, Suwalsky & Haynes, 2003, p. 34). The affect of Socio-economic status and intellectual/academic attainment diminishes with age. However, the effects of family income on achievement among 7-year-olds are similar to the effects on intelligence for 3-year-olds. Socio-economic status also appears to affect school attendance and number of years of schooling completed. The impact on years completed appears to be less than the impact on school achievement. Even so, socio-economic status remains one of the most consistent predictors of early high school dropout, with evidence suggesting that it is connected both to low parental expectations and to early initiation of sexual activity (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002). Students from lower-income families suffer further disadvantages as well. Economic hardship and stress have been known to affect the relationship between the parent and child. If the socio-economic status of the student is low, the amount of parental support, control, and consistency is usually low as well. Adolescents from intact families have been found to be more optimistic and confident about the future than those from homes in which there has been a separation, divorce, or parental death. References Bornstein, M. H. & Bradley, R. H. (Eds. ). (2003). Socioeconomic Status, Parenting, and Child Development. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Bradley, R. H. , & Corwyn, R. F. (2002). Socioeconomic Status and Child Development. 371+. Briscoe, J. (1994, December). The Cost of Child Abuse and Neglect. Corrections Today, 56, 26+. Education Is Critical to Closing the Socioeconomic Gap. (2003, February). World and I, 18, 18. Ellis, L. (Ed. ). (1994). Social Stratification and Socioeconomic Inequality (Vol. 2). Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.